Biology

Biology

How living things are built, inherit, reproduce, defend themselves and evolve, and the parasites that live in and on us: the biology medicine starts from.

8 chapters, 103 topics, 43 written so far

The exam syllabus for Biology: its 103 questions in its eight sections.

  1. Chapter 1

    Biopolymers: structure, synthesis and self-assembly

    1. 1Origin and evolution of cells. Prokaryotes, eukaryotes, Escherichia coli
    2. 2Proteins. Protein domains. Protein families
    3. 3Nucleic acids. DNA. RNA
    4. 4Recognition and self-assembly of macromolecules. Cytoskeleton
    5. 5Transcription
    6. 6RNA processing
    7. 7Genetic code. Translation
    8. 8Proteins after translation: sorting, folding, modifications, degradation
    9. 9DNA replication
    10. 10RNA replication. Reverse transcription
    11. 11DNA repair
  2. Chapter 2

    Genome: organization and gene expression

    1. 12Prokaryotic genome and regulation of gene expressionNot written yet
    2. 13Eukaryotic genome and regulation of gene expressionNot written yet
    3. 14Cytoplasmic (extrachromosomal) inheritance in prokaryotes and eukaryotesNot written yet
    4. 15General (homologous) recombination. Molecular mechanisms of crossing overNot written yet
    5. 16Site-specific recombinationNot written yet
    6. 17Reproduction of virusesNot written yet
    7. 18Chromatin. NucleosomesNot written yet
    8. 19Human karyotype. Types of chromosomesNot written yet
    9. 20Gene mutations. Mechanisms and mutagenic factorsNot written yet
    10. 21Chromosomal mutations. Evolution of karyotypeNot written yet
    11. 22Genes and alleles. Dominance and recessivity – mechanisms, medical examples. Penetrance and expressivityNot written yet
    12. 23Phenotype, genotype and allele frequencies. Hardy–Weinberg lawNot written yet
    13. 24Factors influencing allele frequencies: mutations, migrations, natural selectionNot written yet
    14. 25Effects of isolation: genetic drift, inbreedingNot written yet
    15. 26Quantitative traitsNot written yet
  3. Chapter 3

    Cell cycle and cell communications

    1. 27Cell cycle, mitosis, cell cycle controlNot written yet
    2. 28Growth factors, proto-oncogenes, oncogenes, tumor suppressors. Oncogenic virusesNot written yet
    3. 29Cell senescence. Cell death: apoptosis, necrosisNot written yet
    4. 30Cell signalling. Cell receptorsNot written yet
  4. Chapter 4

    Reproduction: mechanisms of fertilization and early embryogenesis

    1. 31Meiosis. Origin of germ cellsNot written yet
    2. 32Spermatogenesis. Mammalian spermatozoaNot written yet
    3. 33Oogenesis. Mature mammalian ovaNot written yet
    4. 34Fertilization. Interaction of maternal and paternal genomesNot written yet
    5. 35Embryonic development – early stages (zygote to neurula)Not written yet
    6. 36Embryonic development – regulative and mosaic. Morphogens and embryonic inductionNot written yet
    7. 37Preimplantation mammalian embryoNot written yet
    8. 38Sex determination and differentiationNot written yet
    9. 39Assisted reproduction: IVF, ICSINot written yet
  5. Chapter 5

    Methods to study biopolymers and cells: molecular basis

    1. 40Methods of karyotyping and chromosome analysisNot written yet
    2. 41Basic methods in molecular biology – electrophoresis, PCR, blotting, sequencingNot written yet
    3. 42Immunological methods. Diagnosis of viral infectionsNot written yet
    4. 43Recombinant DNA technology – restriction endonucleases, DNA vectors, recombinant proteinsNot written yet
    5. 44Cell micromanipulationsNot written yet
    6. 45Transgenic animals. Gene therapyNot written yet
  6. Chapter 6

    Immunity: molecular and cellular basis

    1. 46Innate immunity
    2. 47Structure of antibodies
    3. 48Functions of antibodies
    4. 49Molecules of cell-mediated immunity
    5. 50Cytotoxic and helper T lymphocytes
    6. 51Genetic basis of antibodies and T-cell receptors
    7. 52Lymphocyte differentiation in central lymphoid organsNot written yet
    8. 53Lymphocyte differentiation in peripheral lymphoid organs. Immune responseNot written yet
    9. 54Immune memoryNot written yet
    10. 55Immune tolerance. Regulatory T lymphocytesNot written yet
    11. 56Transplantation immunityNot written yet
    12. 57Antitumor immunity. Evolution of immunityNot written yet
    13. 58Blood group alloantigens. ABO and H blood groupsNot written yet
    14. 59Rhesus blood groupsNot written yet
  7. Chapter 7

    Evolution and development

    1. 60Animal evolution before vertebratesNot written yet
    2. 61Sequence of evolutionary innovations in vertebrate classesNot written yet
    3. 62Phylogeny and development of the skullNot written yet
    4. 63Phylogeny and development of the postcranial skeletonNot written yet
    5. 64Phylogeny and development of the skinNot written yet
    6. 65Phylogeny and development of the nervous system (brain and spinal cord)Not written yet
    7. 66Phylogeny and development of the skin sense organs, taste, and olfactory organs (smell)Not written yet
    8. 67Phylogeny and development of the organ of balance and hearing (ear)Not written yet
    9. 68Phylogeny and development of organ of visionNot written yet
    10. 69Phylogeny and development of digestive systemNot written yet
    11. 70Phylogeny and development of circulatory systemNot written yet
    12. 71Phylogeny and development of respiratory systemNot written yet
    13. 72Phylogeny and development of excretory systemNot written yet
    14. 73Phylogeny and development of reproductive systemNot written yet
    15. 74Mechanisms of evolution. AnagenesisNot written yet
    16. 75Speciation (cladogenesis). MacroevolutionNot written yet
    17. 76Human evolutionNot written yet
    18. 77Molecular evolutionNot written yet
  8. Chapter 8

    Biology of medically important parasites

    Overview and terminology

    1. 78Overview of parasitism

    Protozoa

    1. 79Protozoa. Phylum Sarcomastigophora. Subphylum Mastigophora (Flagellata). Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. Trypanosoma cruzi
    2. 80Leishmania donovani. Leishmania tropica. Leishmania braziliensis
    3. 81Trichomonas vaginalis. Trichomonas tenax. Giardia lamblia (Lamblia intestinalis)
    4. 82Subphylum Sarcodina. Entamoeba histolytica. Entamoeba dispar. Entamoeba gingivalis
    5. 83Phylum Apicomplexa. Toxoplasma gondii
    6. 84Plasmodium vivax. Plasmodium malariae. Plasmodium falciparum. Morphological differences in the erythrocyte schizogony of the genus Plasmodium
    7. 85Phylum Ciliophora. Balantidium coli

    Metazoa

    1. 86Metazoa: important evolutionary changes associated with the transition to multicellularity. Phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata). Genus Hydra. Genus Obelia
    2. 87Phylum Platyhelminthes: important evolutionary changes. Class Trematoda. Fasciola hepatica
    3. 88Dicrocoelium dendriticum (D. lanceatum)
    4. 89Opisthorchis felineus. Genus Schistosoma and its species
    5. 90Class Cestoda. Diphyllobothrium latum
    6. 91Taenia saginata. Taenia solium
    7. 92Echinococcus granulosus. Hymenolepis nana
    8. 93Phylum Nematoda. Ascaris lumbricoides
    9. 94Enterobius vermicularis. Trichuris trichiura (Trichocephalus trichiurus)
    10. 95Trichinella spiralis
    11. 96Ancylostoma duodenale. Strongyloides stercoralis
    12. 97Dracunculus medinensis. Filarial worms: Wuchereria bancrofti, Loa loa, Onchocerca volvulus
    13. 98Phylum Annelida: important evolutionary changes. Lumbricus terrestris. Hirudo medicinalis
    14. 99Phylum Arthropoda: important evolutionary changes. Class Crustacea: general characterisation. Class Arachnida. Orders Scorpiones and Araneae
    15. 100Order Acari. Medical importance of ticks and mites
    16. 101Class Insecta. The role of insects as vectors and mechanical carriers
    17. 102Pediculus humanus. Phthirus pubis. Cimex lectularius. Pulex irritans
    18. 103Genus Culex and genus Anopheles: morphological differences. Phlebotomus papatasi